Brittany Sarza, Lyndsey Garde, and Benjamin Swiszcz
Jean-Jacques Rousseau(1712 - 1778)
"Free people, remember this maxim: we may acquire liberty, but it is never recovered if it is once lost."
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a famous French philosopher, developed a distinct view of human nature and applied it to a variety of his subjects in his work, including education and political society. Rousseau's wisdom held true in society in the eighteenth century and continues to in modern day. However, Rousseau's contributions go far beyond the concept of human nature. His understanding of government and political society became the foundation of prominent governments in modern day. His writings served as the beginnings of modern philosophy and the Enlightenment. Therefore, Rousseau explored the concept of human nature and applied his thoughts to society, which would eventually serve as the foundation of current political and social laws and policies.
Early Life:Jean-Jacques Rousseau was
Geneva, Switzerland and surrounding area
born in Geneva, Switzerland in June of 1712 to a family of Calvinist refugees from France ("The Life of Rousseau," 2009). Soon after he was born,
The house where Rousseau was born
Rousseau's mother died, leaving him to be raised by his father, a clockmaker. In 1722, Rousseau's father was exiled from Geneva. Jean-Jacques Rousseau was left behind under the care of his mother's relatives for several years ("JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU"). After several unsuccessful apprenticeships, Rousseau finally ran away from Geneva in 1728. He held a variety of jobs in musical, educational, and secretarial fields. Also, in the time after leaving Geneva up until 1750, Rousseau developed friendships with the philosophers Condillac and Diderot. During this period, Rousseau began his first philosophical explorations (Delaney, 2005). Soon after his explorations, Rousseau began publishing some of his own philosophical works. His first work was Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, published in 1750. This discourse was a response to an essay contest question posed by the Academy of Dijon in France. Rousseau's Discourse on the Arts and Sciences won this contest. He achieved a great deal of fame as a result (Delaney, 2005). Three years later, Rousseau wrote his Discourse on the Origin of Inequality among Men as a response to another essay contest question asked by the Academy of Dijon. The question asked, "What is the origin of inequality among men, and is it authorized by the natural law?" Although Rousseau did not win this contest, the question provoked his first work concerning natural law and human nature (Delaney, 2005).
Later on in his life, Rousseau wrote several other major works, including his Contract social ou Principes du droit politique, better known as The Social Contract, which explained Rousseau's contract theory of government (Halsall, 1997). Rousseau's Emile expounded upon his views concerning education. Due to the controversial nature of The Social Contract and Emile, Rousseau was forced to leave France to avoid arrest ("JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU"). In his later life, Rousseau would suffer from paranoia and would live his final years in seclusion until he died of a stroke in 1778 (Marvin, 2000).
Principles:
Discourse on Inequality (1754)
A. Background: Rousseau's motivation for addressing the philosophical question of human nature resulted from a variety of factors. Firstly, Rousseau had multiple friends who were philosophers, including Condillac and Diderot. It is likely that the beginnings of his philosophical thought developed from his interactions with other philosophers. Secondly, Rousseau existed in eighteenth century Europe, a time period known as the Enlightenment. The goal of all Enlightenment thinkers was essentially "to give a foundation to philosophy that was independent of any particular tradition, culture, or religion," so Rousseau's rational philosophical writings also were related to the intellectual atmosphere of the time (Delaney, 2005). Finally, the essay contest at the Academy of Dijon that provoked philosophical thought within Rousseau led to his writing of the Discourse on the Origin of Inequality among Men, where he first began to examine the concept of human nature. Thus, Rousseau's companions, the atmosphere in Europe, and the contests at the Academy of Dijon all combined to motivate Rousseau to examine the philosophical question of human nature.
B. Principles Regarding Human Nature: Rousseau's view of human nature has a variety of components. At its core, however, Rousseau's view revolved around the idea that "human beings were essentially good and equal in the state of natur
Emile
e but were corrupted by the introduction of property, agriculture, science and commerce" (Marvin, 2000). Unlike Hobbes and other philosophers who viewed humans as animalistic creatures, Rousseau believed that men were motivated "not by innate egoism, but by gentle self-love" that is an "ardent interest in the self's preservation"(Cladis, 2000). However, Rousseau's opinion of humans was not entirely positive either. Rousseau contends that humans were corrupted by the evils of society, thereby causing conflict among them.
Another aspect of Rousseau's view of human nature concerns education. Rousseau's main work concerning education is Emile, which was published in 1762. Rousseau contends that the purpose of education is to protect the student from the corruption of society ("The Life of Rousseau," 2009). When properly educated, a student is "governed by wisdom and the love of wisdom" (Rousseau, 2002). The most distinctive aspect of Rousseau's Emile concerns how a student is educated. According to Rousseau, nothing should be taught from others' ideas, and the student should instead "draw his own conclusions from his own experience" (Darling, 1985). Therefore, education is both good and natural, as it cannot be corrupted by the sometimes inaccurate thoughts of others. As a result, education can give people the wisdom to withstand the corrupting aspects of society.
C. Principles Regarding Government/Laws: Rousseau's view of how society should form and function revolves around his most famous work, The Social Contract. Rousseau's commentary on the state of many societies provoked
The Social Contract
him to devise a functional plan for society on his own. Rousseau argues that it is difficult to "find a form of association which defends and protects with the whole common force the person and goods of each associate, and in which each, while uniting himself with all, may still obey himself alone and remain as free as before" (Salkever, 1978). Basically, Rousseau cites the problem of maintaining individual freedom while being involved in a greater society.
His solution to the entire concept of government was his social contract theory. The social contract theory of government is "the belief that people are free and equal by natural right, and that this in turn requires that all people give their consent to be governed" (O'Connor, 2009). Although citizens give up some of their individual liberties when they give their consent to be governed, it is insignificant compared to the protection that the government provides. However, Rousseau believed that a system of checks and balances was necessary to avoid tyranny. Rousseau's Social Contract warns against the dangers of monarchy and encourages separate executive and legislative branches in addition to graduated promotions as a way to ensure checks and balances in government (Williams, 2005). Thus, Rousseau's view of society revolves around his social contract theory of government, which acknowledges the equality and natural goodness of humans. This requires consent to be governed in order to preserve civil society among citizens. Rousseau's Social Contract
Modern Implications of His Philosophy:
The Declaration of Independence
Though Rousseau's work has a variety of manifestations in modern day, the most significant of these is in the United States. Rousseau's social contract theory served as the foundation of American government when it was first created over two hundred years ago. The social contract theory still applies today through the founding documents upon which the United States government is based. One distinct example of the social contract theory as it applies to the American government concerns the Declaration of Independence. Although the Declaration of Independence did not establish the United States government, it provides the ideals upon which the government is based, namely "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." The Declaration of Independence cites these rights - the rights to life, liberty, and property - as reasons for separation from England since these rights were infringed upon in the colonial era. The social contract theory is prominent in the Declaration of Independence because the Declaration of Independence "based the justification for the split with England on the English government's violation of the social contract with the American colonists" (O'Connor, 2009).
The social contract theory is also influential in terms of the United States Constitution. For example, the Constitution established an indirect democracy, also known as a republic, in
The Constitution of the United States
which the citizens elect representatives to act on their behalf. In this context, all of the members of Congress are representatives of the public will, since their power comes directly from the people. By electing these officials, citizens effectively are giving their consent to be governed by such officials, which is in keeping with the social contract theory. Additionally, the Constitution had to be ratified by all of the states, so the people were also giving their consent to be governed according to the system laid out in the Constitution. Finally, the amendment procedure highlights the concepts of the social contract theory effectively as well. Although all constitutional amendments are proposed at the national level, they must be ratified at the state level by state legislatures or state conventions. In either case, those who ratify the amendments come directly from the people. Therefore, by ratifying the amendment, the citizens are indirectly giving their consent to be governed by such an amendment.
A final place where the social contract theory has influence upon American government is in the Bill of Rights. Though the Bill of Rights is technically part of the Constitution, the social contract theory applies to the Bill of Rights in its own distinct way. Through the social contract theory of government, citizens must give up some of their individual liberties for the maintenance of civil society and effective government. The Bill of Rights is a way to ensure that all of these rights would not be taken away from citizens. This is in accordance with the concept of all people being equal by natural right, as advocated by the social contract theory. Hence, the Bill of Rights coincides with the concepts of equality and natural rights of all people.
Comparison/Contrast to Catholic View of Human Nature: Rousseau's perception of human nature is both similar and different to the Catholic view of human nature. One major way in which the two views of human nature are similar revolves around the concept of humans being naturally good. When God created humans, He created them in His image. When He looked back at what He had created, He saw that it was very good. This concept of natural human goodness is common in both Catholic teaching and in Rousseau's philosophy. However, the major difference between the Catholic Church's view of human nature and Jean-Jacques Rousseau's view of human nature revolves around the concept of original sin. The Catholic Church teaches that "man, tempted by the devil, let his trust in his Creator die in his heart and, abusing freedom, disobeyed God's command" ("Catechism of the Catholic Church"). The Church further explains that "all need salvation and that salvation is offered to all through Christ" ("Catechism of the Catholic Church"). Thus, there is a need for redemption that is granted through Christ. On the other hand, Rousseau did not believe in the doctrine of original sin at all. In his understanding of human nature, Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that man is naturally good and that society is ultimately responsible for the evil that is present in the world (Alberg, 2001). Both of these beliefs are in contrast with the Catholic doctrine of original sin. If each human is naturally good, then he or she cannot possibly be born with sin. Likewise, if society is responsible for the evil in the world, the culpability cannot lie with individual humans and be inherited as original sin. Thus, Rousseau's entire philosophy concerning the concept of human nature sharply contrasts the beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church with regard to the doctrine of original sin. Consequently, Rousseau's philosophy does not support a need for redemption. Rousseau, who believes that humans are naturally good and that the responsibility for sin is not with individual humans, cannot logically support a need for redemption. If humans are completely good, and if sin is not their fault, then there is very little that they could possibly need redemption for. Thus, Rousseau and the Catholic Church disagree on original sin and the necessity of redemption.
Works Cited:
Alberg, Jeremiah L. “Rousseau and the Original Sin.” Revista Portuguesa De Filosofia 57.4
Jean-Jacques Rousseau(1712 - 1778)
"Free people, remember this maxim: we may acquire liberty, but it is never recovered if it is once lost."
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a famous French philosopher, developed a distinct view of human nature and applied it to a variety of his subjects in his work, including education and political society. Rousseau's wisdom held true in society in the eighteenth century and continues to in modern day. However, Rousseau's contributions go far beyond the concept of human nature. His understanding of government and political society became the foundation of prominent governments in modern day. His writings served as the beginnings of modern philosophy and the Enlightenment. Therefore, Rousseau explored the concept of human nature and applied his thoughts to society, which would eventually serve as the foundation of current political and social laws and policies.Early Life:Jean-Jacques Rousseau was
Soon after his explorations, Rousseau began publishing some of his own philosophical works. His first work was Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, published in 1750. This discourse was a response to an essay contest question posed by the Academy of Dijon in France. Rousseau's Discourse on the Arts and Sciences won this contest. He achieved a great deal of fame as a result (Delaney, 2005). Three years later, Rousseau wrote his Discourse on the Origin of Inequality among Men as a response to another essay contest question asked by the Academy of Dijon. The question asked, "What is the origin of inequality among men, and is it authorized by the natural law?" Although Rousseau did not win this contest, the question provoked his first work concerning natural law and human nature (Delaney, 2005).
Later on in his life, Rousseau wrote several other major works, including his Contract social ou Principes du droit politique, better known as The Social Contract, which explained Rousseau's contract theory of government (Halsall, 1997). Rousseau's Emile expounded upon his views concerning education. Due to the controversial nature of The Social Contract and Emile, Rousseau was forced to leave France to avoid arrest ("JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU"). In his later life, Rousseau would suffer from paranoia and would live his final years in seclusion until he died of a stroke in 1778 (Marvin, 2000).
Principles:
A. Background:
Rousseau's motivation for addressing the philosophical question of human nature resulted from a variety of factors. Firstly, Rousseau had multiple friends who were philosophers, including Condillac and Diderot. It is likely that the beginnings of his philosophical thought developed from his interactions with other philosophers. Secondly, Rousseau existed in eighteenth century Europe, a time period known as the Enlightenment. The goal of all Enlightenment thinkers was essentially "to give a foundation to philosophy that was independent of any particular tradition, culture, or religion," so Rousseau's rational philosophical writings also were related to the intellectual atmosphere of the time (Delaney, 2005). Finally, the essay contest at the Academy of Dijon that provoked philosophical thought within Rousseau led to his writing of the Discourse on the Origin of Inequality among Men, where he first began to examine the concept of human nature. Thus, Rousseau's companions, the atmosphere in Europe, and the contests at the Academy of Dijon all combined to motivate Rousseau to examine the philosophical question of human nature.
B. Principles Regarding Human Nature:
Rousseau's view of human nature has a variety of components. At its core, however, Rousseau's view revolved around the idea that "human beings were essentially good and equal in the state of natur
Another aspect of Rousseau's view of human nature concerns education. Rousseau's main work concerning education is Emile, which was published in 1762. Rousseau contends that the purpose of education is to protect the student from the corruption of society ("The Life of Rousseau," 2009). When properly educated, a student is "governed by wisdom and the love of wisdom" (Rousseau, 2002). The most distinctive aspect of Rousseau's Emile concerns how a student is educated. According to Rousseau, nothing should be taught from others' ideas, and the student should instead "draw his own conclusions from his own experience" (Darling, 1985). Therefore, education is both good and natural, as it cannot be corrupted by the sometimes inaccurate thoughts of others. As a result, education can give people the wisdom to withstand the corrupting aspects of society.
C. Principles Regarding Government/Laws:
Rousseau's view of how society should form and function revolves around his most famous work, The Social Contract. Rousseau's commentary on the state of many societies provoked
His solution to the entire concept of government was his social contract theory. The social contract theory of government is "the belief that people are free and equal by natural right, and that this in turn requires that all people give their consent to be governed" (O'Connor, 2009). Although citizens give up some of their individual liberties when they give their consent to be governed, it is insignificant compared to the protection that the government provides. However, Rousseau believed that a system of checks and balances was necessary to avoid tyranny. Rousseau's Social Contract warns against the dangers of monarchy and encourages separate executive and legislative branches in addition to graduated promotions as a way to ensure checks and balances in government (Williams, 2005). Thus, Rousseau's view of society revolves around his social contract theory of government, which acknowledges the equality and natural goodness of humans. This requires consent to be governed in order to preserve civil society among citizens.
Rousseau's Social Contract
Modern Implications of His Philosophy:
The social contract theory is also influential in terms of the United States Constitution. For example, the Constitution established an indirect democracy, also known as a republic, in
A final place where the social contract theory has influence upon American government is in the Bill of Rights. Though the Bill of Rights is technically part of the Constitution, the social contract theory applies to the Bill of Rights in its own distinct way. Through the social contract theory of government, citizens must give up some of their individual liberties for the maintenance of civil society and effective government. The Bill of Rights is a way to ensure that all of these rights would not be taken away from citizens. This is in accordance with the concept of all people being equal by natural right, as advocated by the social contract theory. Hence, the Bill of Rights coincides with the concepts of equality and natural rights of all people.
Comparison/Contrast to Catholic View of Human Nature:
Rousseau's perception of human nature is both similar and different to the Catholic view of human nature. One major way in which the two views of human nature are similar revolves around the concept of humans being naturally good. When God created humans, He created them in His image. When He looked back at what He had created, He saw that it was very good. This concept of natural human goodness is common in both Catholic teaching and in Rousseau's philosophy. However, the major difference between the Catholic Church's view of human nature and Jean-Jacques Rousseau's view of human nature revolves around the concept of original sin. The Catholic Church teaches that "man, tempted by the devil, let his trust in his Creator die in his heart and, abusing freedom, disobeyed God's command" ("Catechism of the Catholic Church"). The Church further explains that "all need salvation and that salvation is offered to all through Christ" ("Catechism of the Catholic Church"). Thus, there is a need for redemption that is granted through Christ. On the other hand, Rousseau did not believe in the doctrine of original sin at all. In his understanding of human nature, Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that man is naturally good and that society is ultimately responsible for the evil that is present in the world (Alberg, 2001). Both of these beliefs are in contrast with the Catholic doctrine of original sin. If each human is naturally good, then he or she cannot possibly be born with sin. Likewise, if society is responsible for the evil in the world, the culpability cannot lie with individual humans and be inherited as original sin. Thus, Rousseau's entire philosophy concerning the concept of human nature sharply contrasts the beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church with regard to the doctrine of original sin. Consequently, Rousseau's philosophy does not support a need for redemption. Rousseau, who believes that humans are naturally good and that the responsibility for sin is not with individual humans, cannot logically support a need for redemption. If humans are completely good, and if sin is not their fault, then there is very little that they could possibly need redemption for. Thus, Rousseau and the Catholic Church disagree on original sin and the necessity of redemption.
Works Cited:
Alberg, Jeremiah L. “Rousseau and the Original Sin.” Revista Portuguesa De Filosofia 57.4
(2001): 773-90. JSTOR. Web. 4 Sept. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/40337657>.
Brians, Paul. “Rousseau, Jean-Jacques: The Social Contract (1762).” Rousseau, Jean-Jacques:
The Social Contract (1762). Washington State University, 23 Dec. 1998. Web. 3 Sept.
2011. <http://public.wsu.edu/~wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_2/
rousseau.html>.
“Catechism of the Catholic Church.” Catechism of the Catholic Church. Libreria Editrice
Vaticana. Web. 7 Sept. 2011. <http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P1C.HTM>.
Cladis, Mark S. “Redeeming Love: Rousseau and Eighteenth-Century Moral Philosophy.” The
Journal of Religious Ethics 28.2 (2000): 221-51. JSTOR. Web. 4 Sept. 2011.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/40024623>.
Darling, John, and Rousseau. “Understanding and Religion in Rousseau’s ‘Emile.’” British
Journal of Educational Studies 33.1 (1985): 20-34. JSTOR. Web. 4 Sept. 2011.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/3121171>.
Delaney, James J. “Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712—1778).” Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712—
1778). University of Tennessee at Martin, 21 Oct. 2005. Web. 3 Sept. 2011.
<http://www.iep.utm.edu/rousseau/>.
Halsall, Paul. “Jean Jacques Rousseau: The Social Contract, 1763.” Modern History Sourcebook.
Fordham University, 1997. Web. 3 Sept. 2011.
<http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/rousseau-soccon.asp>.
“JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU.” JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU (1712-1778). Oregon State
University. Web. 3 Sept. 2011.
<http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/philosophers/rousseau.html>.
Marvin, Chris. “Jean Jacques Rousseau.” Philosophers: Rousseau. Trinity College, 2000. Web. 3
Sept. 2011. <http://www.trincoll.edu/depts/phil/philo/phils/rousseau.html>.
O’Connor, Karen, and Larry J. Sabato. American Government: Roots and Reform. New York:
Pearson, 2009. Print.
Rousseau, Emile, and Laurence D. Cooper. “Human Nature and the Love of Wisdom:
Rousseau’s Hidden (and Modified) Platonism.” The Journal of Politics 36.1 (2002): 108-
25. JSTOR. Web. 31 Aug. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/2691667>.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Social Contract. 1762. Rousseau: Social Contract. Web. 3 Sept. 2011. http://www.constitution.org/jjr/socon.htm.
Salkever, Stephen G. “Rousseau & the Concept of Happiness.” Polity 11.1 (1978): 27-45.JSTOR.
Web. 6 Sept. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3234247>.
“The Life of Rousseau.” JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU. North Carolina State University, 2009. Web. 3 Sept. 2011. <http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/agexed/aee501/rousseau.html>.
Williams, David Lay. “Modern Theorist of Tyranny? Lessons from Rousseau's System of
Checks and Balances.” Polity 37.4 (2005): 443-65. JSTOR. Web. 31 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/3877097>.